To Benefit from the Qur’an

The Qur’an is Allah’s choicest gift to humanity. It is the miracle of miracles testifying to the prophethood of Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) and the eternal source of divine guidance, healing, light, mercy. It is glad tidings for the Allahconscious, and a warning for the heedless and the insolent. It contains inexhaustible wisdom; it is the quintessence of the knowledge of both ancients and the moderns, the Decisive Criterion; Spirit from Allah, and revelation from on High on the heart of the Messenger. Finally, it is our rope of salvation, pleader for us or against us on the Day of Final Reckoning. It is therefore imperative that we respond to the Divine Word most
appropriately.

Here are a few tips to help us benefit from the Qur’an optimally:
1. Visualize the grandeur of the Word and the august majesty of its Speaker: In order to properly benefit from the Qur’an, it is imperative that our mind and heart be filled with a deep sense of reverence and awe for the Mighty Word and its Author, the Creator and Sovereign Lord of all beings, a Word, about which Allah says, “Had We sent down this Qur’an on a mountain you would see it humbling itself, breaking asunder for awe ofAllah.” (Al-Hashr: 21)


2. Keep Your Presence of mind: We cannot expect to benefit from the Qur’an unless we pay undivided attention to it; so it is imperative that we dispel all distractions. One may do well to take the necessary steps to induce proper concentration, such as purifying oneself both physically and inwardly, sitting comfortably in a relaxed manner, etc.

3. Reflect: Since the main purpose of reading the Word is none other than reflecting on the message, we ought to reflect upon it. `Ali said, “There is no good in worship without knowledge; there is no good in reading without reflection.” That is the reason why we read in the sources that the Prophet, Companions and As-salaf As-salih (righteous early Muslims) often would repeat the same verse continuously in order to better reflect upon the deeper meanings of the verse.

4. Remove veils and obstacles: Often one is prevented from attaining due reflection because of the many veils and obstacles that stand in the way of appreciating the Qur’an, veils such as the following: (1) Obsession with external rules of recitation/articulation of sounds to such an extent that one is totally pre-occupied with them and is thus distracted from paying due attention to pondering the meanings; (2) Blind imitation of a particular sect or school or ideology and being fanatically attached to it so that one’s own preconceived biases or prejudices prevent one from perceiving the deeper meanings of the Word; (3) Persistence in sins or pride whereby the mirror of one’s heart becomes rusted so that it is incapable of gaining true spiritual insights; (4) Clinging to a particular
work of tafseer so dogmatically that one holds the false view that the author has exhausted the entire meanings of the Qur’an in his exposition, no matter how articulate and profound he may be, for the Qur’an is inexhaustible in its depth.

5. Identify with the meanings of the verses read and respond to them sensitively: When reading the verses about attributes of Allah, bring to mind Allah’s incomparable nature and absolute uniqueness. When reading the verses that speak of Allah’s creation, think of the manifestation of divine power as revealed in His work, thus being led to recognize Allah’s might and glory. When reading the verses describing Paradise, cherish such ardent fervor for it that you spontaneously seek Allah’s mercy. When reading descriptions of Hell, you should tremble and pray that Allah keeps you safe from its
torments.

6. Visualize that Allah is speaking to you directly through the Qur’an: As the late Dr. Iqbal said, “No advice from anyone benefited me as much as I benefited from the advice of my mother who told me, ‘My son, when reading the Qur’an, visualize in your mind that Allah is speaking to you through it!’” This is why Muhammad ibn Ka`b Al-Qurazi, one of the scholars of the generation after the Companions of the Prophet said, “Whoever has received the Qur’an, Allah has certainly spoken to him!”

7. Be sensitive: Imam Al-Ghazali says: In order to benefit from the Qur’an, three of our faculties must participate in the act of recitation, namely, the tongue, the mind and the heart. Thus the tongue articulates the sounds, the mind translates the meanings, and the heart becomes sensitive and receives admonition or counsel.

8. Develop in yourself the qualities of the Servants of the Merciful: The ultimate objective of the revelation is to transform our inner personalities in such a way that we personify the ideals and ethics of the Qur’an. This is why the Prophet was described by `A’ishah as a walking Qur’an. So one must read, reflect on the message, and act accordingly as the Companions of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) did, thus combining knowledge with practice.

9. Salute the Messenger, the medium of the Word: We cannot detach the Message from the Messenger, for he alone is the interpreter par excellence of the Word and its living exemplifier. Therefore, we ought to consistently send salutations of peace and blessings on him. For without a deep love for the Messenger, we cannot truly appreciate the revelations sent down by Allah to him through the medium of Angel Jibreel. May Allah for ever shower His choicest blessings and peace on His Servant and Messenger Muhammad, his family and companions. And may He grant us all the honor of joining their august company after we depart this transient world. Ameen.”

Source: Outhor everyone

AMAZING ANTS

INTRODUCTION
"Then, when they reached the valley of the ants, an ant said,'Ants! Enter your dwellings so that Sulayman and his troops do not crush you unwittingly.(Surat an-Naml: 18)"

Harun Yahya, Miracle in The Ant:
Ants accomplish extraordinary tasks, which even human beings would have difficulty in doing.
The "wisdom" displayed by these tiny creatures proves that they are created and assigned to
carry out their specific tasks by the Creator, Who rules over all of nature. Read, watch or listen to Miracle in the Ant, discuss and take notes. Older children may be able to take their own notes.

Use these notes throughout the rest of the unit to refer back to.

Ant Architecture
Discuss different places ants are found. Go for a walk outside and see different places ants have built homes eg.trees, dirt, walls, etc. Discuss different materials they have used. What other places could ants build homes? What other materials could they use?

Extension Activities
Art: Nest Blueprints
Have students paint or draw a side view of an underground ant nest. Using fingerprints of washable paint, have students add ants to the tunnels: three connected fingerprints make an ant body, and a few quick pen strokes make the legs and antennae. (Use big thumbprints for that queen ant!) Make sure their drawings depict ants in different stages of development, with ants doing different jobs.

Ant Trails
Watch the ants movement. Do they seem to follow each other? Why? What benefits would following each other have? Test: Place a small piece of paper over an existing ant trail. let ants relearn the trail
over the paper, and then rotate the paper. What happens to the trail? What do the ants do? Rotate the paper back. What do the ants do?

Explain: It turns out that when ants find food, they secrete an invisible chemical called "trail pheromone" as they return to the nest. This trail leads directly from the nest to the food source. Other worker ants then follow the trail right to the food. Each worker then reinforces the trail on the way back. When all the food is gone, the workers no longer secrete trail pheromone and eventually the trail fades away. Extension Activities Younger students-

• Let them make their own trails using bits of paper or string for others to follow
• Play "follow the leader"
Older Students-
• Research other types of "pheremones", discuss how other insects or animals might
use pheremones (eg. Alarm pheremones, sex pheremones, primer pheremones and
aggregation pheremones.
• Research and write a report about "How Insects Communicate".

Ant Jobs
Different ants have different jobs
Are some jobs more inportant to others? What would happen if one group of ants stopped
doing their jobs? How would it effect the colony as a whole?
Different people have different jobs too. List some different jobs you can think of. Are some
jobs more important than others? . Discuss what would happen people stopped doing their
jobs.

Strength Of Ants
While watching ants coming and going from an outdoor ant nest, observe the size of food
that foraging ants bring back to the colony. How many times their size can they carry?
Discuss ways to determine a ratio of food size to ants. Compare their strength to that of a
human being: we can pull about 60% of our weight, but ants can pull 50 times their weight.
Look up facts about human strength in The Guinness Book of World Records.

Resources : Amazing Ant, Harun Yahya

RECOGNIZING ALLAH THROUGH HIS CREATION

People find it difficult to believe in something that they can not see. They say, “If we don’t see Him, how would we know He is there? “

You can not see the wind but you can give us proofs that the wind does exist. We can see the effects of the wind: tree branches moving, pieces of paper on the ground blowing away. We feel cold when the wind strikes against our faces. These are some signs that the wind is there.

Someone will say, “I have a lot of pain. I have got a headache. I have got a migraine.” I can tell him, “Show me the pain. If I can not see the pain, how would I believe you?” We know that the person has pain by the symptoms he shows. The person is in agony. You can see the pain on his face and in his tears. Although we cannot see the pain, we can see the signs or the symptoms of pain. A person suffering from “cold” cannot show you a piece of “cold” to convince you. The symptoms talk: running nose and sneezing.

Similarly, we cannot see Allah. But not seeing Allah does not mean that He does not exist. There are many signs that are posted by Allah that lead to Him. Look at the creation around you; it is magnificent. There is no one beside Allah who can create what He has created. Look at a tree; where did it come from? It came from a small seed. The seed was planted by a farmer who cared for it by supplying the needed water, organic and inorganic needs. Allah breaks the seed open, sending roots down. A stem comes out of it. From that stem, many branches come out and the branches have leaves, flowers and fruits. From a small seed Allah creates a large tree where you see beautiful colors, flowers, different fruits with different tastes. So, who is doing this? It is Allah subhanahu-wa-ta-ala.

Look around again to the force of gravity. What is it? We were told in science and physics that it is equal 9.8 m/s. This force works on all of us as a result of which we are walking on earth. If the number is increased to say 15, what would happen? A seven- foot giant would be reduced to three-foot midget. What would happen if we have the reverse? If the number is decreased to 3 or 4 we would not be able to put our feet on the ground because there is no force on top of us to push us down. Then we would change to supermen and superwomen flying in the atmosphere. The astronauts can float around in space because the force of gravity is reduced significantly. It is Allah, the Wise, who set the gravity force at the present rate to help Man live on earth in comfort. If it is higher we would sink in the ground; if it is lower we would float in space.

Another example is the delicious honey we eat and enjoy. The honeybees collect nectar from different flowers to manufacture it into honey for our enjoyment. If you don’t like to look at the universe to study it, you can perhaps look at your own body. We have children born from the same mother and the same father and they are distinct in their characteristics. One has blue eyes and the other has green eyes. One is short and the other is tall. One is skinny and the other is fat. They were developed in the womb of the same mother. Common sense suggests similarity but Allah makes them different; they
are different human beings. If all people were the same, we would have a very boring world.

Differences exist. Five Six billion people live on the face of the earth and you never find the finger print of one person to match the other, not even one case. You notice also differences in voice. You can not identically match voices. Sometimes they may sound identical but the sound waves are truly different.

We look in the mirror and wonder. We were created from two small droplets. Allah has fashioned us in the most beautiful shape. Allah has made us in perfect proportions. The Glorious Quran (82: 6-8) says,” O MAN! What is it that lures thee away from thy bountiful Sustainer?; who has created thee, and formed thee in accordance with what thou art meant' to be and shaped thy nature in just proportions; having put thee together in whatever form He willed [thee to have]?”


The human being has the best shape. Just let us look at the facial features. The nose is placed between the eyes and the mouth. If you don’t like the location of your nose, where would you like to put it? Look at the hair. The hair of the head is growing at certain rate which is different than that of eye brows. Our teeth grow to a certain height and then stop. They don’t grow any further other wise we would be looking like bunnies.

All people with no exception appear the way they do because of the delicate balance between two small molecules: growth hormone and thyroxin. “These hormones are secreted at the right time and in the right amount, commanding trillions of individual cells with orders as to how much and how fast they have to multiply. As a result, a perfectly formed human body comes into being.

In the majority of human beings, the amount of this molecule is adjusted in a very special way so that neither too much nor too little is produced. If the amount of these hormones produced varied too much from one individual to another, there would be major physical differences between people; millions of people would be between 2.5 and 3 meters tall; millions would be one meter or less in height, everyone would have a body and facial structure lacking proportion, and almost everyone would be mentally retarded.
Millions of people would die while still in adolescence.

To repeat: the external appearance and physical characteristics of human beings is due to small molecules that God has wonderfully created – the growth hormone and thyroxin. This is another proof of how God has constructed human beings on a foundation of delicate balances.” Harun Yahya, the Miracle of Hormones, 2004.

He created the heavens and the Earth with truth and formed you, giving you the best of forms. And He is your final destination. (Quran 64:3)

“[All] this is God’s creation: show Me, then, what others than He may have created! Nay, but the evildoers are obviously lost in error!” (Quran 31:11)


by
DR. MOHAMMED SALEH (Educational Consultant ) & MOHAMED SIDAT (Radiologist)
October 31, 2008
2 Zul-Qi’dah 1429

ABU BAKR MUHAMMAD BIN ZAKARIYA AR-RAZI (Rhazes)

by
Dr. A. Zahoor


The well-known writer George Sarton says in his Introduction to the History of Science that “Rhazes was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages.” And the Encyclopedia of Islam remarks that “Rhazes remained up to the 17th century the undisputable authority of medicine.” The Bulletin of the World Health Organization (WHO), May 1970, pays tribute to him by stating: “His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject.”

Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Ar-Razi was born at Ray near modern Tehran in 251 A.H. (864 C.E.) It is said that early in his life al-Razi was interested in singing and music besides other professions. Because of his eagerness for knowledge, he became more interested in the study of alchemy and chemistry, philosophy, logic, mathematics and physics. It was the field of medicine that he spent most of his life, practicing it, studying and writing about it. Due to his fame in medicine he was appointed head of the physicians of the Ray Hospital, and later put in charge of the Baghdad main Hospital during the reign of the Adhud-Daulah.

An interesting episode of Al-Razi’s remarkable method of choosing the right spot for the Baghdad main hospital is described as follows. When Adhud Daulah asked Al-Razi to build a hospital, he had pieces of fresh meat placed at various parts of the city of Baghdad. Some time later, he checked each piece to find out which one was less rotten than the others, and he chose the spot of the least rotten pieces of meat a site for the hospital.

Ar-Razi was a pioneer in many areas of medicine and treatment and the health sciences in general. In particular, he was a pioneer in the fields of pediatrics, obstetrics and ophthalmology. In medicine, his contribution was so significant that it can only be compared to that of Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Some of his works in medicine, e.g., Kitab al-Mansoori, Al-Hawi, Kitab al-Mulooki and Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah earned everlasting fame. A special feature of his medical system was that he greatly favored cures through correct and regulated food. This was combined with his emphasis on the influence of psychological factors on health. He also tried proposed remedies first on animals in order to evaluate in their effects and side effects. Ar-Razi was the first person to introduce the use of alcohol (Arabic Al-Kuhl) for medical purposes. He was also an expert surgeon and was the first to use opium for anaesthesia.

Ar-Razi was the first to give an account of the operation for the extraction of a cataract and also the first scientist to discuss the pupillary reaction or the widening and narrowing of the pupil of the eye. He explained that the reaction was due to the presence of small muscles which act according to the intensity of light. The current understanding on this subject confirms his work.

The greatest medical work of Ar-Razi (Rhazes), and perhaps the most extensive ever written by a medical man, is al-Hawi, i.e., the “Comprehensive Book,” which includes indeed Greek, Syrian, and early Arabic medical knowledge in their entirety. Throughout his life Ar-Razi must have collected extracts from all the books available to him on medicine. In his last years, he combined these with his medical experience into an enormous twenty volume medical encyclopedia. Al-Hawi was the largest medical encyclopedia composed by then. It was translated into Latin under the auspices of Charles I of Anjou by the Sicilian Jewish physician, Faraj ibn Salim (Farragut) in 1279 and was repeatedly printed from 1488 onwards. Al-Hawi was known as ‘Continens’ in its Latin translation. “By 1542 there had appeared five editions of this vast and costly work, besides many more of various parts of it. Its influence on European medicine was thus very considerable.” (The Legacy of Islam, pp. 323-5). Another scholar points out that Ar-Razi’s “al-Hawi was one of the nine volumes constituting the whole library of the Paris Faculty of Medicine in 1395.” (Durant; Haider, Bammate, 29).

Kitab al-Mansoori, which was translated into Latin (known by the title ‘Liber Almansoris’) in the 1480s in Milan, comprised ten volumes and dealt exhaustively with Greco-Arab medicine. Some of its volumes have been published separately into German and French. The ninth volume of the translation made by Gerard of Cremona the “Nonus Al-Mansuri,” was a popular text in Europe until the sixteenth century (Durant, p247). Ar-Razi in Al-Mansoori devoted a whole chapter on anatomy. In it he has presented a detailed description of the various organs of the human body, and sensory and motor parts. He has also given elaborate descriptions of the intervertebral foramina and the spinal chord, and correctly asserted that an injury either to the brain or spinal chord would lead to paralysis of the parts of the organs whose nerve supply was damaged or destroyed.

His al-Judari wa al-Hasabah was the first treatise on smallpox and chickenpox, and is largely based on Razi’s original contribution. It was first translated into Latin in 1565 and later into several European languages and went into forty editions between 1498 and 1866. It was translated into English by William A. Greenhill, London, 1848. Through his treatise Razi became the first to draw clear comparisons between smallpox and chickenpox.

Ar-Razi gave many valuable pieces of advice to practicing physicians: “A physician should not forget to ask his patient all sorts of questions pertaining to the possible causes of his illness, both internal and external….If a physician can treat a patient through nutrition rather than medicine he has done the best thing. A physician should always try to convince his patient of improvement and hope in the effectiveness of treatment, for the psychological state of the patient has a great effect on his physical condition. He used to advise his patients thus: “Whoever seeks treatment with too many physicians might suffer the risk of the faults of each one of them. A patient should restrict consultation to one trustworthy physician.”

Ar-Razi also compounded medicines and took keen interest in experimental and theoretical sciences. It is conjectured that he developed his chemistry independently of Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber). He has discussed several chemical reactions and also given full descriptions of and designs for about twenty instruments used in chemical investigations. His description of chemical knowledge is in plain and plausible language. One of his books Kitab-al-Asrar deals with the preparation of chemical materials and their utilization. Another one was translated into Latin under the name Liber Experimentorum. He went beyond his predecessors in dividing substances into plants, animals and minerals, thus in a way opening the way for inorganic and organic chemistry. By and large, this classification still holds. As a chemist, he was the first to produce sulfuric acid together with some other acids, and he also prepared alcohol by fermenting sweet products.

His contribution as a philosopher is also well known. The basic elements in his philosophical system are the creator, spirit, matter, space and time. He discusses their characteristics in detail and his concepts of space and time as constituting a continuum is outstanding.

Ar-Razi was a prolific author, who has left monumental treatises on numerous subjects. He has more than two hundred outstanding scientific contributions to his credit, out of which about half deal with medicine and twenty-one on Alchemy. He also wrote on physics, mathematics, astronomy and optics, but these writings could not be preserved. A number of his other books, including Jami-fi-al-Tib, Maqalah fi al-Hasat fi Kuli wa al-Mathana, Kitab al-Qalb, Kitab-al-Mafasil, Kitab-al-’Ilaj al-Ghoraba, Bar al-Sa’ah, and al-Taqseem wa al-Takhsir, have been published in various European languages. About 40 of his manuscripts are still extant in the museums and libraries of Iran, Paris, Britain, and Rampur (India). His contribution has greatly influenced the development of science, in general, and medicine in particular.

Like other great scholars of Islamic history, Razi’s erudition was all-embracing and his scientific work remarkable. The foregoing description represents only a part of the great legacy left by Ar-Razi. He died in 930 C.E. Razi’s portrait adorns the great hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris.


http://isnet.org/

WHAT IS ISLAMIC MEDICINE?

Ahmed El-Kadi
U.S.A.

With the growing movement for the restoration of Islamic values, there is an increasing demand on Muslim scienists to restore and develop the Islamic sciences. It is essential, however, for the Muslim scientist to have a clear and sound understanding of the science he is expected to restore and develop. The majority of Muslim health professionals have no clear idea as to what Islamic medicine is. Even the ones who have an idea may differ In their concept and definition of Islamic Medicine. The question then arises: What is Islamic Medicine?

Is it the Id medicine, still being practiced by some Hakims in the east? is it natural medicine utilizing mostly herbs, diets and lifestyle adjustments? Is it a madicine limited to the health related teachings found in the ur’an and the prophet’s tradition? Is it primarily faith-healing and prayers for the sick? Is it customary medicine given an Islamic label? Or is it some new discovery providing a cure for almost all ills? None of the above is in itself Islamic Medicine, but all together, and a great deal more, are its ingredients.

Accordin to Islamic teaching, God has made available a treatment for every illness, He has created’. This teaching implies that every available and useful treatment known to us should be utilised, and that if a ,treatment for a certain illness is not yet known to us, it is our duty to search for it until we find it. Therefore, Islamic medicine cannot be limited to any branch of the healing arts which does not have the answer, or atleast the potential to have the answer, to all illnesses. The treatment in question may be spirit al or physical exercise, nutritional adjustment, pharmaceutical preparation, be it all natural ingredients purely synthetic, surgical procedure, radiation therapy, or a combination of any of these modalities.

Although Islamic Medicine may include, among many others, all the modalities of modern medicine, it differs from modern medicine in that it fulfills all the following six criteria: It is excellent and leading among other brands of the healing arts. It is a medicine with faith and Divine ethics. It is guided and oriented. It is comprehensive, paying attention to body and spirit, to the individual and the society. It is universal, utilzing all useful resources, and offering its services to all mankind. And last, but not least, it is scientific.

While modern medicine proclaims these criteria, i.e. to be excellent, ethical, oriented, comprehensive, niversal and scientific, it has failed to fulfill any of them. An examination of modern medicine wit regard to these six criteria will show how poorly it rates. United States statistics of the last decade will be used as representative of modern medicine.

The first criterion is excellence. Performance of modern medicine will be evaluated according to its ability save life, to eradicate or control disease, and to improve personal wellbeing.

Modern medical statistics may give the impression that the average age of the population has been extended, and that more lives are being saved. A key figure in mortality statistics is infant mortality since it affects total mortality figures and also the average age of the population. Infant mortality for 1978 is presen ed as 22,010 which is a great improvement on the 43,205 reported for 19702. For some reason, however, modern medical statistics completely ignore the huge figure of 1 , 1 50, 776 babies who died in 1978 d ring their first nine months of life, and who were classified as abortions and not as a mortality. This 178 figure represents an almost 600% increase over the 1970 figure of just 193 ,4913. To count all dead babies will change infant mortality to 172,786 in 1978 as opposed to just 236,696 in 1970. As to mortal it due to other leading causes of death, the progress made by modern medicine in some areas was almost cancelled out by the deterioration in other areas (Table 1 ). All areas combined, but without countin abortions, the mortality figure of 1 ,809,818 in 1970 decreased to l’ 776,390 in 1978, or a meagr 1.8% improvement. Counting abortions, true total mortality was 2,003,309 in 1970, increasing to 2,927,1 6 in 1978, or a 46% deterioration. As to eradication or control of disease, modern medicine has made few steps forward in a few areas and many more steps backward in other areas (Table 2). The total in idence of the so-called dangerous diseases has increased from 1 ,065,012 in 1 970 to 1,281 ,952 in 197 , or a 20% deterioration of disease control over an eight-year period. The ability of modern medicine to improve personal happiness and wellbeing is also declining as manifested by the increasing incidence of suicide from 23,480 in 1970 to 27,500 in 19782; and the soaring incidence of divorce from 708,00 in 1970 to l’ 128000 in 19782. It is obvious, with these poor performance figures, that modern medicine does not fulfill the first criterion of excellence.

The second criterion of Islamic Medicine is that it is a medicine with faith and divine ethics. All evidence indicates that modern medicine has no faith in God as the Supreme authority, and that modern medica ethics are by no means Divine. Modern medicine approves of the termination of the life of an innocent human being just for the convenience of another human being; it approves of premarital or extramarital relations; it approves of homosexual relations; and it sees no harm in providing alcohol in the great majority of liquid medicinal preparations. All these are clear violations of God’s teachings, and these are just a few of many examples. The supreme authority in modern medicine is the consensus of the majority of physicians regardless of God’s opinion on a given subject.

The third criterion of Islamic Medicine is that it is guided and oriented. Examination of current medical practices proves that modern medicine is quite misguided and disoriented. The philosophical foundation of modern medicine is confused and lacks sound logic. Modern medicine is trying to save all the lives it can save, but is willing to destroy the lives of millions & millions of unborn babies. Modern medicine recognized electrical brain activities as assign of life and would not dispose of any person as long a these activities are present. However, it is willing to dispose of huge numbers of unborn babies even t ough they have electrical brain activities. Modern medicine proves beyond any doubt that alcohol is hazardous to health, but is willing to add alcohol to most of the liquid medicinal preparations although a substitute is within reach. Modern medicine is very quick to accept the request of young females for permanent sterilization, then it goes to painstaking lengths to restore fertility in the very same young females who later discover that their initial decision was wrong and that they do not want to be sterile. Modern medicine claims to be doing its best to prevent the development or the spread of disease, but it does not t all discourage and may actually, directly or indirectly, encourage certain socio sexual behavior and attitudes which have proven to lead to the development and spread of disease. Modern medicine claims to be the most ethical profession, but it shows no hesitation in violating and ignoring the divine ethical rules.

The fourth criterion of Islamic Medicine is that it is comprehensive, paying attention to body and spirit, the individual and society. Examination of our modern medicine will show that its approaches are usually one-sided and inadequate, leading in many instances to disastrous consequences. Modern medicine as been greatly concerned with the physical growth of young children while it ignored the needs of their ethical upbringing and spiritual growth. This deficient approach has resulted in a large number of these children growing to be victims of drug abuse and juvenile delinquency, a problem of epidemic proportions and frightening magnitude. Modern medicine has promoted sex education but has ignored th proper ethical and moral restrictions which should be included in such programs. This has resulted in an increase in the number of unwanted pregnancies, an increase in the number of illegitimate children, soaring rise in the incidence of venereal disease, as well as marital problems and unhappy families results which are exactly the opposite of what was intended from the sex education programs. Modern medicine has fairly advanced knowledge of the physical components of peptic and cardiovasc lar disorders and also of ways and means of dealing with these components! The incidence of these disorders, however, is still quite high due to the lack of consideration and attention given to the spiritual an social needs of the patient and which may be playing an important role in the etiology of the diseas .

The some one sided approach is manifest at the level of basic science and clinical research. Considerable time, energy, and money are spent on the physical aspects of disease while very little if any, attention is paid to the spiritual and ethical aspects, be they the cause or the results of the so called somatic dis ases.

The fifth criterion of Islamic Medicine is that it is universal, utilizing all useful resources and offering its services to all mankind. Such a medicine must be willing to look into any potentially useful treatment modality, subject it to proper investigation, and utilize it if it proves to be useful. Modern medicine, however, seem to be quite reluctant to become involved with any treatment modality which does not originate from ts own schools. Although some of these “non-conventional” treatment modalities may be effective and may have already passed the test of centuries and proved to be successful, modern medicine would look on them with suspicion or even with prejudiced condemnation rather than approach them with inquisitiveness and an open minded investigative spirit. As a result of this restrictive attitude, modern me dicine is missing a great deal of good ideas which could provide simple, safe, and inexpensive treatment for many disorders.

The sixth criterion of Islamic Medicine is that it is scientific. The last thing one would expect is to declare modern medicine non-scientific. Unfortunately, it is. There are requirements for a scientific approach to qualify as such. These requirements, just to mention a few, include honesty in handling available data, accuracy of figures and statistics, thoroughness in considering all variables, consistency and som clarity of purpose. Critical examination of modern medicine shows that it fails to fulfill these criteria. There is no clarity of purpose as manifested by the numerous conflicting and contradictory practices and attitudes. There is no consistency of philosophy and policy as was demonstrated earlier in this discussion. Many variables are often ignored, many statistics lack accuracy, and consequently wrong conclusions are often reached. The fact that modern medicine is afflicted with increasing mortality and increasin incidence of disease inspite of all the technological advances is not reasonable and does not make sense. It indicates that there must be something missing, and there is.

The big question is: Can Islamic Medicine overcome all the problems of modern medicine, and can it provid its missing ingredients? The answer is a confident “yes”. In all the problem areas of modern medicine listed in this paper, the deficiences are either lack of ethical and moral guidance, lack of standardized value system, disregard of certain restrictive or instructive rules related to ingested materials, or disregardle of certain hygienic and social guidelines governing human relations and social life. These missing item, are the very one abundantly provided by Islamic teachings.

The detailed elaboration on the correlation between various Islamic teachings and the course or development of various diseases is beyond the scope of this paper and will be the subject of separate investigations. The combination of Islamic teachings and the existing technological advances, which are fully suported by the Islamic teachings, produces a unique blend of healing arts which qualifies as Islamic medicine, a medicine which is most upto date and progressive while in full harmony with divine teachings and guidance. The basic Islamic teaching asserting that there is a cure for every illness (and it is up to seto find it) is an unbeatable stimulus for study and research towards unparalleled progress and achievement. The establishment of such a healing art entails the total reevaluation and revision of all existin basic and clinical sciences. In addition to providing the new medical foundation, the revised texts and restructured curricula will reflect the link between the creator and His creation thus reinforcing the concept of oneness of God (Tawheed) and automatically improving the faith of the student through his own professional study. These texts and curricula will also reflect the oneness of creationiby showing how the yarious systems of animated and non animated creatures follow very much the same laws of nature, or better stated, laws of God, thus broadening the horizon of the student which will in turn make him a better scientist and a better person. It will be a monumental task to establish, but a task worth undertaking.

source: http://isnet.org

Razi, Zakariya (Rhazes), chemist and physicist, discoverer of Alcohol.

Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi (Persian: زكريای رازی Zakaria ye Razi; Arabic: ابو بکر محمد بن زكريا الرازی; Latin: Rhazes or Rasis). According to al-Biruni he was born in Rayy, Iran in the year 865 AD (251 AH), and died there in 925 AD (313 AH).

Razi was a versatile Persian physician, philosopher, and scholar who made fundamental and enduring contributions to the fields of medicine, alchemy, and philosophy, recorded in over 184 books and articles in various fields of science. He was well versed in Greek medical knowledge and added substantially to it from his own observations. As an alchemist, Razi is credited with the discovery of sulfuric acid, the "work horse" of modern chemistry and chemical engineering. He also discovered ethanol and its refinement and use in medicine. He was unquestionably one of the greatest thinkers of the Islamic World, and had an enormous influence on European science and medicine.

Razi was a pure rationalist, extremely confident of the power of reason; he was widely regarded by his contemporaries and biographers as liberal and free from any kind of prejudice, very bold and daring in expressing his ideas without a qualm. He believed in man, progress and in "God the Wise".

He traveled in many lands and rendered service to several princes and rulers especially to Baghdad where he had his lab. As a teacher in Medicine he attracted a great amount of students of all disciplines and was said to be compassionate, kind, upright, and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor.

The modern-day Razi Institute in Tehran, and Razi University in Kermanshah were named after him, and 'Razi Day' ('Pharmacy Day') is commemorated in Iran every August 27.



Biography

In Persian, Razi means "from the city of Rayy (also spelled Ray, Rey, or Rai, old Persian Ragha, Latin Rhagae -formerly one of the great cities of the World)", an ancient town on the southern slopes of the Elburz Range that skirts the south of the Caspian Sea, situated near Tehran, Iran. In this city (like Avicenna) he accomplished most of his work.

In his early life he could have been a jeweller (Baihaqi), a money-changer (Cf. Ibn abi Usaibi'ah) but more likely a lute-player who changed his interest in music to alchemy (cf. ibn Juljul, Sa'id, ibn Khallikan, Usaibi'ah, al-Safadi). At the age of thirty (Safadi says after forty) he stopped his study of alchemy because its experiments caused an eye-disease (Cf. al-Biruni), obliging him to search for physicians and medicine to cure it. al-Birflni, Baihaqi and others, say this was the reason why he began his medical studies. He was very studious working night and day. His teacher was 'Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari (Cf. al-Qifti, Usaibi'ah), a physician and philosopher born in Merv about 192 (808 C.E.) (d. approx. 240 (855 C.E.)). Al-Razi studied medicine and probably also philosophy with ibn Rabban al-Tabari. Therefore his interest in spiritual philosophy can be traced to this master, whose father was a Rabbinist versed in the Scriptures. According to Prof.Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead, Professor of Chemistry at the Faculty of Science, University of Cairo (Cf. the Alchemy Website): " (...) Al-Razi took up the study of medicine after his first visit to Baghdad, when he was at least 30 years old, under the well-known physician Ali ibn Sahl (a Jewish convert to Islam, belonging to the famous medical school of Tabaristan or Hyrcania). He showed such a skill in the subject that he quickly surpassed his master, and wrote no fewer than a hundred medical books. He also composed 33 treatises on natural science (not including alchemy),mathematics and astronomy (...)."

Al-Razi became famous in his native city as a physician. He became Director of the hospital of Rayy (Cf. ibn Juljul, al-Qifti, ibn abi Usaibi'ah), during the reign of Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad ibn Asad who was Governor of Rayy from 290-296 (902-908 C.E.) on behalf of his cousin Ahmad ibn Isma'il ibn Ahmad, second Samanian ruler. Razi dedicated his al-Tibb al-'Mansurito Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad , which was verified in a handwritten manuscript of his book. This was refuted by ibn al-Nadim', but al-Qifti and ibn abi Usaibi'ah confirmed that the named Mansur was indeed Mansur ibn Isma'il who died in 365 (975 C.E.). al-Razi moved from Rayy to Baghdad during Caliph Muktafi's reign (approx. 289-295 (901-907 C.E.)) where he again held a position as Chief Director of a hospital.

After al-Muktafi's death in 295 (907 C.E.) al-Razi allegedly returned to Rayy where he gathered many students around him. As Ibn al-Nadim relates in Fihrist, al-Razi was then a Shaikh (title given to one entitled to teach) "with a big head similar to a sack", surrounded by several circles of students. When someone arrived with a scientific question, this question was passed on to students of the 'first circle'. if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second circle'... and so on and on, until at last, when all others had failed to supply an answer, it came to al-Razi himself. We know of at least one of these students who became a physician. Al-Razi was a very generous man, with a humane behavior towards his patients, and acting charitable to the poor. He used to give them full treatment without charging any fee, nor demanding any other payment. When he was not occupied with pupils or patients he was always writing and studying. This fact might have been the cause for the gradual weakening of his sight which finally resulted in becoming blind in both eyes. Some say the cause of his blindness was that he used to eat too many broad beans (baqilah). His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness. The rumor goes that he refused to be treated for cataract, declaring that he "had seen so much of the world that he was tired of it." However, this seems to be an anecdote more than a historical fact. One of his pupils from Tabaristan came to look after him, but, according to al-Biruni, he refused to be treated proclaiming it was useless as his hour of death was approaching. Some days later he died in Rayy, on the 5th of Sha'ban 313 (27th of October, 925 C.E.).

Al-Razi's Masters and Opponents

We already mentioned that Razi studied medicine under Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari, however, Ibn al-Nadim indicates that he studied philosophy under al-Balkhi, who had travelled much and possessed great knowledge of philosophy and ancient sciences. Some even say that al-Razi attributed some of al-Balkhi's books on philosophy to himself. We know nothing about this man called al-Balkhi, not even his full name.

Razi's opponents, on the contrary, are well-known. They are the following:

1. Abu al-Qasim al-Balki, chief of the Mu'tazilah of Baghdad (d. 319 AH/931 CE), a contemporary of al-Razi who wrote many refutations about al-Razi's books, especially in his Ilm al-Ilahi. His disagreements with al-Razi entailed his thoughts on the concept of 'Time'.

2. Shuhaid ibn al-Husain al-Balkhi, with whom al-Razi had many controversies; one of these was on the concept of 'Pleasure', expounded in his Tafdll Ladhdhat al-Nafs which abu Sulaiman al-Mantiqi al-Sijistani quotes in his work Siwan al-Hikmah. Al-Balkhi died prior to 329/940.

3. Abu Hatim al-Razi became the most important of all his opponents (d. 322 AH/933-934 CE) and was one of the greatest Isma'ili missionaries. He published his controversies with al-Razi in his book A'lam al-Nubuwwah. Because of this book, al-Razi's thoughts on Prophets and Religion are preserved for us.

4. Ibn al-Tammar (seemingly being abu Bakr Husain al-Tammar, says Kraus) was a physician and he too had some disputes with al-Razi, which is documented by abu Hatim al-Razi in A'lam al-Nubuwwah. Ibn al-Tammar disagreed with al-Razi's book al-Tibb al-Ruhani but al-Razi counteracted this. In fact, al-Razi wrote two antitheses:

(a) First refutation of al-Tammar's disagreement with Misma'i concerning 'Matter'.

(b) Second refutation of al-Tammar's opinion of 'the Atmosphere of subterranean habitations'.

5.Following are authors as described by al-Razi in his writings:

(a) al-Misma'i, a Mutakallim, who opposed 'materialists', counteracted byan al-Razi's treatise.

(b) Jarir, a physician who had a theory about 'The eating of black mulberries after consuming water-melon'.

(c) al-Hasan ibn Mubarik al-Ummi, to whom al-Razi wrote two epistles with commentaries.

(d) al-Kayyal, a Mutakallim: al-Razi wrote a book on about his Theory of the Imam.

(e) Mansur ibn Talhah, being the author of the book "Being", which was criticized by al-Razi.

(f) Muhammad ibn al-Laith al-Rasa'ili whose opposition against alchemists was disputed by al-Razi.

6. Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhasi (d. 286 AH/899 CE), was an older contemporary of al-Razi. Al-Razi disagreed with him on the question of 'bitter taste'. He moreover opposed his teacher Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, regarding his writings, in which he discredited alchemists.

Contributions to medicine

Smallpox vs. measles

As chief physician of the Baghdad hospital, Razi formulated the first known description of smallpox:

"Smallpox appears when blood 'boils' and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as 'bubbles found in wine' -(as blisters)- ... this disease can also occur at other times -(meaning: not only during childhood)-. The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic."
This diagnosis is acknowledged by the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911), which states: "The most trustworthy statements as to the early existence of the disease are found in an account by the 9th-century Arabian [sic] physician Rhazes, by whom its symptoms were clearly described, its pathology explained by a humoral or fermentation theory, and directions given for its treatment."

Razi's book: al-Judari wa al-Hasbah was the first book describing smallpox, and was translated more than a dozen times into Latin and other European languages. Its lack of dogmatism and its Hippocratic reliance on clinical observation shows Razi's medical methods. We quote:

"The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompanied by fever and an itching felt by the patient all over his body. A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breath and cough. Additional symtomps are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with 'measles' than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one shows an overall shining redness, with a very pronounced redness of the gums."

Razi was the first physician to diagnose smallpox and measles and the first one to distinguish the difference between them.

Allergies and fever

Razi is also known for having discovered "allergic asthma," and was the first physician ever to write articles on allergy and immunology. In the Sense of Smelling he explains the occurrence of 'rhinitis' after smelling a rose during the Spring: Article on the Reason Why Abou Zayd Balkhi Suffers from Rhinitis When Smelling Roses in Spring. In this article he dicusses seasonal 'rhinitis', which is the same as allergic asthma or hay fever. Razi was the first to realize that fever is a natural defense mechanism, the body's way of fighting disease.

Pharmacy

Rhazes contributed in many ways to the early practice of pharmacy by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of 'mercurial ointments' and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century.

Ethics of medicine

On a professional level, Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their nostrums and 'cures'. At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and leprosy the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician.

Books and articles on medicine

The Virtuous Life (al-Hawi Arabic الحاوي).

This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes — known in Europe also as The Large Comprehensive or Continens Liber (Arabic جامع الكبير) — contains considerations and criticism on the Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato, and expresses innovative views on many subjects. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider Razi the greatest medical doctor of the Middle Ages.
The al-Hawi is not a formal medical encyclopaedia, but a posthumous compilation of Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou, and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe.

A medical advisor for the general public (Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib) (Arabic من لا يحضره الطبيب)

Razi was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home Medical Manual (remedial) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveler, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book, of course, is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century. Razi described in its 36 chapters, diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary, a market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results.
Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example, he prescribed for a feverish headache: " 2 parts of duhn (oily extract) of rose, to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which a piece of linen cloth is dipped and compressed on the forehead". He recommended as a laxative, " 7 drams of dried violet flowers with 20 pears, macerated and well mixed, then strained. Add to this filtrate, 20 drams of sugar for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either poppies or its juice (opium), clover fodder (Curcuma epithymum) or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised myrrh, saffron, and frankincense, 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of yellow arsenic formed into tablets. Each tablet was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of coriander water and used as eye drops.

Doubts About Galen (Shukuk 'ala alinusor)

Rhazes's independent mind is strikingly revealed in this book and G. Stolyarov II quotes:
"In the manner of numerous Greek thinkers, including Socrates and Aristotle, Rhazes rejected the mind-body dichotomy and pioneered the concept of mental health and self-esteem as being essential to a patient's welfare. This "sound mind, healthy body" connection prompted him to frequently communicate with his patients on a friendly level, encouraging them to heed his advice as a path to their recovery and bolstering their fortitude and determination to resist the illness and resulting in a speedy convalescence."
In his book Doubts about Galen, Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the Greek language and many of his cosmological and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy, and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen's descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds Galen's.
He criticized moreover Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate "humors" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted particularry that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. (Cf. I. E. Goodman)
This line of criticism essentially had the potentiality to destroy completely Galen's Theory of Humours including Aristotle's theory of the Four Elements, on which it was grounded. Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or inflammability and salinity, which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements.
Razi's challenge to the current fundaments of medical theory were quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his commendable contributions and labors. saying:
"I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man Galen from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published."
Crystallization of ancient knowledge, and the refusal to accept the fact that new data and ideas indicate that present day knowledge ultimately might surpass that of previous generations.
Razi believed that contemporary scientists and scholars are by far better equipped, more knowledgeable, and more competent than the ancient ones, due to the accumulated knowledge at their disposal. Razi's attempt to overthrow blind acceptance of the unchallenged authority of ancient Sages, encouraged and stimulated research and advances in the arts, technology, and sciences.

Books on medicine

This is a partial list of Razi's books and articles in medicine, according to Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah. Some books may have been copied or printed under different names.

al-Hawi, al-Hawi al-Kabir. Also known as The Virtuous Life, Continens Liber. The large medical Encyclopedia containing mostly recipes and Razi's notebooks.
Isbateh Elmeh Pezeshki, An Introduction to Medical Science.
Dar Amadi bar Elmeh Pezeshki
Rade Manaategha 'tibb jahez
Rade Naghzotibbeh Nashi
The Experimentation of Medical Science and its Application
Guidance
Kenash
The Classification of Diseases
Royal Medicine
For One Without a Doctor
The Book of Simple Medicine
The Great Book of Krabadin
The Little Book of Krabadin
The Book of Taj or The Book of the Crown
The Book of Disasters
Food and its Harmfulness
al-Judari wa al-Hasbah, The Book of Smallpox and Measles
Ketab dar Padid Amadaneh Sangrizeh (Stones in the Kidney and Bladder)
Ketabeh Dardeh Roodeha
Ketab dar Dard Paay va Dardeh Peyvandhayyeh Andam
Ketab dar Falej
The Book of Tooth Aches
Dar Hey'ateh Kabed
Dar Hey'ateh Ghalb (About Heart Ache)
About the Nature of Doctors
About the Earwhole
Dar Rag Zadan
Seydeh neh/sidneh
Ketabeh Ibdal
Food For Patients
Soodhayeh Serkangabin
Darmanhayeh Abneh
The Book of Surgical Instruments
The Book on Oil
Fruits Before and After Lunch
Book on Medical Discussion (with Jarir Tabib)
Book on Medical Discussion II (with Abu Feiz)
About the Menstrual Cycle
Ghi Kardan
Snow and Medicine
Snow and Thirst
The Foot
Fatal Diseases
About Poisoning
Hunger
Soil in Medicine
The Thirst of Fish
Sleep Sweating
Warmth in Clothing
Spring and Disease
Misconceptions of a Doctors Capabilities
The Social Role of Doctors

Translations

Razi's interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of transmutation of lesser metals to silver and gold was attested half a century after his death by Ibn an-Nadim's book (The Philosophers Stone-Lapis Philosophorum in Latin). Nadim attributed a series of twelve books to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to al-Kindi's denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801-873 CE) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mum founder of Baghdad, to 'the House of Wisdom' in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy.
Finally we will mention Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: al-Asrar ("The Secrets"), and Sirr al-Asrar ("The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates much of the previous work.

Apparently Razi's contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning iron and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in Mohammad Zakaria Razi that a certain General Simjur confronted Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. "It appeared to those present that Razi was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and replied":

"I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been no answer. I very much doubt if it is possible..."

Chemical instruments and substances

Razi developed several chemical instruments that remain in use to this day. He is known to have perfected methods of distillation and extraction, which have led to his discovery of sulfuric acid (by dry distillation of vitriol, (al-zajat) and alcohol. These discoveries paved the way for other Islamic alchemists, as did the discovery of various other mineral acids by Jabir Ibn Hayyam (known as Geber in Europe).

Razi dismissed the idea of potions and dispensed with magic, meaning the reliance on symbols as causes. Although Razi does not reject the idea that miracles exist, in the sense of unexplained phenomena in nature, his alchemical stockroom was enriched with products of Persian mining and manufacturing, even with sal ammoniac a Chinese discovery. He relied predominantly on the concept of 'dominant' forms or essences, which is the Neoplatonic conception of causality rather than an intellectual approach or a mechanical one. Razi's alchemy brings forward such empiric qualities as salinity and inflammability -the latter associated to 'oiliness' and 'sulphurousness'. These properties are not readily explained by the traditional composition of the elements such as : fire, water, earth and air, as al-óhazali and others after him were quick to note, influenced by critical thoughts such as Razi had.

Major works on alchemy

al-Razi's achievements are of exceptional importance in the history of chemistry, since in his books we find for the first time a systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity. Razi's scheme of classification of the substances used in chemistry shows sound research on his part.

The Secret (Al-Asrar)

This book was written in response to a request from Razi's close friend, colleague, and former student, Abu Mohammed b. Yunis of Bukhara, a Muslim mathematician, philosopher, a highly reputable natural scientist.
In his book Sirr al-Asrar, Razi divides the subject of "Matter' into three categories as he did in his previous book al-Asrar.
* Knowledge and identification of drug components of plant-, animal- and mineral-origin and the description of the best type of each for utilization in treatment.
* Knowledge of equipment and tools of interest to and used by either alchemist or apothecary.
* Knowledge of seven alchemical procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation of mercury, precipitation of sulfur and arsenic calcination of minerals (gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron), salts, glass, talc, shells, and waxing.
This last category contains additionally a description of other methods and applications used in transmutation:
* The added mixture and use of solvent vehicles.
* The amount of heat (fire) used, 'bodies and stones', ('al-ajsad' and 'al-ahjar) that can or cannot be transmuted into corporal substances such of metals and Id salts ('al-amlah').
* The use of a liquid mordant which quickly and permanently colors lesser metals for more lucrative sale and profit.
Similar to the commentary on the 8th century text on amalgams ascribed to Al- Hayan (Jabir), Razi gives methods and procedures of coloring a silver object to imitate gold (gold leafing) and the reverse technique of removing its color back to silver. Gilding and silvering of other metals (alum, calcium salts, iron, copper, and tutty) are also described, as well as how colors will last for years without tarnishing or changing. Behind these procedures one does not find a deceptive motive rather a technical and economic deliberation. This becomes evident from the author's quotation of market prices and the expressed triumph of artisan, craftsman or alchemist declaring the results of their efforts "to make it look exactly like gold!". However, another motive was involved, namely, to manufacture something resembling gold to be sold quickly so to help a good friend who happened to be in need of money fast. Could it be Razi's alchemical technique of silvering and gilding metals which convinced many Muslim biographers that he was first a jeweler before he turned to the study of alchemy?
Of great interest in the text is Razi's classification of minerals into six divisions, showing his discussion a modern chemical connotation:
* Four SPIRITS (AL-ARWAH) : mercury, sal ammoniac, sulfur, and arsenic sulphate (orpiment and realgar).
* Seven BODIES (AL-AJSAD) : silver, gold, copper, iron, black lead (plumbago), zinc (Kharsind), and tin.
* Thirteen STONES : (AL-AHJAR) Pyrites marcasite (marqashita), magnesia, malachite, tutty Zinc oxide (tutiya), talcum, lapis lazuli, gypsum, azurite, magnesia , haematite (iron oxide), arsenic oxide, mica and asbestos and glass (then identified as made of sand and alkali of which the transparent crystal Damascene is considered the best),
* Seven VITRIOLS (AL-ZAJAT) : alum (ak-shubub), and white (qalqadzs), black , red, and yellow (qulqutar) vitriols (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green (qalqand).
* Seven BORATES : tinkar, natron, and impure sodium borate.
* Eleven SALTS (AL-AMLAH): including brine, common (table) salt, ashes, naphtha, live lime, and urine, rock, and sea salts. Then he separately defines and describes each of these substances and their top choice, best colors and various adulterations.
Razi gives also a list of apparatus used in alchemy. This consists of 2 classes:
* Instruments used for the dissolving and melting of metals such as the Blacksmith's hearth, bellows, crucible, thongs (tongue or ladle), macerator, stirring rod, cutter, grinder (pestle), file, shears, descensory and semi-cylindrical iron mould.
* Utensils used to carry out the process of transmutation and various parts of the distilling apparatus: the retort, alembic, shallow iron pan, potters kiln and blowers, large oven, cylindrical stove, glass cups, flasks, phials, beakers, glass funnel, crucible, alundel, heating lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- and water-bath, sieve, flat stone mortar and chafing-dish.

Secret of Secrets (Sirr Al-asrar)

This is Razi's most famous book which has gained a lot of recognition in the West. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical operations important to the history of pharmacy.

Books on alchemy

Here is a list of Razi's known books on alchemy, mostly in Persian:

Modkhele Taalimi
Elaleh Ma'aaden
Isbaate Sanaa'at
Ketabeh Sang
Ketabe Tadbir
Ketabe Aksir
Ketabe Sharafe Sanaa'at
Ketabe Tartib, Ketabe Rahat, The Simple Book
Ketabe Tadabir
Ketabe Shavahed
Ketabe Azmayeshe Zar va Sim (Experimentation on Gold)
Ketabe Serre Hakimaan
Ketabe Serr (The Book of Secrets)
Ketabe Serre Serr (The Secret of Secrets)
The First Book on Experiments
The Second Book on Experiments
Resaale'ei Be Faan
Arezooyeh Arezookhah
A letter to Vazir Ghasem ben Abidellah
Ketabe Tabvib

Philosophy

On existence

Razi believed that a competent physician must also be a philosopher well versed in the fundamental questions regarding existence:

"He proclaimed the absolutism of Euclidean space and mechanical time as the natural foundation of the world in which men lived, but resolved the dilemma of existent infinities by synthesizing this outlook with the atomic theory of Democritus, which recognized that matter existed in the form of indivisible and fathomable quanta. The continuity of space, however, holds due to the existence of void, or a region lacking matter... This is remarkably close to the systems yielded by the discoveries of such later European scientists as John Dalton and Max Planck, as well as the observational and theoretical works of modern astronomer Halton Arp and Objectivist philosopher Michael Miller. Progress, in the view of all these men, is not to be obstructed by a jumble of haphazard and contradictory relativistic assertions which result in metaphysical hodge-podge instead of a sturdy intellectual base. Even in regard to the task of the philosopher, Rhazes considered it to be progressing beyond the level of one's teachers, expanding the accuracy and scope of one's doctrine, and individually elevating oneself onto a higher intellectual plane." (G. Stolyarov II)
Razi is known to have been a free-thinking Islamic philosopher, since he was well-trained in ancient Greek sciences although his approach to chemistry was rather naturalistic. Moreover he was well versed in the theory of music, as so many other Islamic scientists of that time.

Metaphysics

His ideas on metaphysics were also based on the works of the great Greeks:

"The metaphysical doctrine of al-Razi, insofar as it can be reconstructed, derives from his concept of the five eternal principles. God, for him, does not 'create' the world from nothing but rather arranges a universe out of pre-existing principles. His account of the soul features a mythic origin of the world in which God out of pity fashions a physical playground for the soul in response to its own desires; the soul, once fallen into the new realm God has made for it, requires God's further gift of intellect in order to find its way once more to salvation and freedom. In this scheme, intellect does not appear as a separate principle but is rather a later grace of God to the soul; the soul becomes intelligent, possessed of reason and therefore able to discern the relative value of the other four principles. Whereas the five principles are eternal, intellect as such is apparently not. Such a doctrine of intellect is sharply at odds with that of all of Razi's philosophical contemporaries, who are in general either adherents of some form of Neoplatonism or of Aristotelianism. The remaining three principles, space, matter and time, serve as the non-animate components of the natural world. Space is defined by the relationship between the individual particles of matter, or atoms, and the void that surrounds them. The greater the density of material atoms, the heavier and more solid the resulting object; conversely, the larger the portion of void, the lighter and less solid. Time and matter have both an absolute, unqualified form and a limited form. Thus there is an absolute matter - pure extent - that does not depend in any way on place, just as there is a time, in this sense, that is not defined or limited by motion. The absolute time of al-Razi is, like matter, infinite; it thus transcends the time which Aristotle confined to the measurement of motion. Razi, in the cases of both time and matter, knew well how he differed from Aristotle and also fully accepted and intended the consequences inherent in his anti-Peripatetic positions." (Paul E. Walker)
It is quite evident that most of his thoughts were derived from the Islam, which is demonstrated clearly in his book: The Metaphysics.

Excerpt from The Philosophical Approach

"(...) In short, while I am writing the present book, I have written so far around 200 books and articles on different aspects of science, philosophy, theology, and [[hekmat]] (wisdom). (...) I never entered the service of any king as a military man or a man of office, and if I ever did have a conversation with a king, it never went beyond my medical responsibility and advice. (...) Those who have seen me know, that I did not into excess with eating, drinking or acting the wrong way. As to my interest in science, people know perfectly well and must have witnessed how I have devoted all my life to science since my youth. My patience and diligence in the pursuit of science has been such that on one special issue specifically I have written 20,000 pages (in small print), moreover I spent fifteen years of my life -night and day- writing the big collection entitled Al Hawi. It was during this time that I lost my eyesight, my hand became paralyzed, with the result that I am now deprived of reading and writing. Nonetheless, I've never given up, but kept on reading and writing with the help of others. I could make concessions with my opponents and admit some shortcomings, but I am most curious what they have to say about my scientific achievement. If they consider my approach incorrect, they could present their views and state their points clearly, so that I may study them, and if I determined their views to be right, I would admit it. However, if I disagreed, I would discuss the matter to prove my standpoint. If this is not the case, and they merely disagree with my approach and way of life, I would appreciate they only use my written knowledge and stop interferring with my behaviour."
"In the "Philosophical Biography", as seen above, he defended his personal and philosophical life style. In this work he laid out a framework based on the idea that there is life after death full of happiness, not suffering. Rather than being self-indulgent, man should pursue knowledge, utilise his intellect and apply justice in his life.
According to Al-Razi: "This is what our merciful Creator wants. The One to whom we pray for reward and whose punishment we fear."
In brief, man should be kind, gentle and just. Al-Razi believed that there is a close relationship between spiritual integrity and physical health. He did not implicate that the soul could avoid distress due to his fear of death. He simply states that this psychological state cannot be avoided completely unless the individual is convinced that, after death, the soul will lead a better life. This requires a thorough study of esoteric doctrines and/or religions. He focuses on the opinion of some people who think that the soul perishes when the body dies. Death is inevitable, therefore one should not pre-occupy the mind with it, because any person who continuously thinks about death will become distressed and think as if he is dying when he continuously ponders on that subject. Therefore, he should forget about it in order to avoid upsetting himself. When contemplating his destiny after death, a benevolent and good man who acts according to the ordinances of the Islamic Shari`ah, has afterall nothing to fear because it indicates that he will have comfort and permanent bliss in the Hereafter. The one who doubts the Shari`ah, may contemplate it, and if he dilligently does this, he will not deviate from the right path. If he falls short, Allah will excuse him and forgive his sins because it is not demanded of him to do something which he cannot achieve." (Dr. Muhammad Abdul-Hadi Abu Reidah)

Books on philosophy

This is a partial list of Razi's books on philosophy. Some books may have been copied or published under different titles.

The Small Book on Theism
Response to Abu'al'Qasem Braw
The Greater Book on Theism
Modern Philosophy
Dar Roshan Sakhtane Eshtebaah
Dar Enteghaade Mo'tazlian
Delsoozi Bar Motekaleman
Meydaneh Kherad
Khasel
Resaaleyeh Rahnamayeh Fehrest
Ghasideyeh Ilaahi
Dar Alet Afarineshe Darandegan
Shakkook
Naghseh Ketabe Tadbir
Naghsnamehyeh Ferforius
Do name be Hasanebne Moharebe Ghomi
Notable books in English are:
Spiritual Medicine
The Philosophical Approach (Al Syrat al Falsafiah)
The Metaphysics

Quotes from Rhazes

Let your first thought be to strengthen your natural vitality.
Truth in medicine is an unattainable goal, and the art as described in books is far beneath the knowledge of an experienced and thoughtful physician.
Asked if a philosopher can follow a prophetically revealed religion, al-Razi frankly replies:

How can anyone think philosophically while listening to old wives' tales founded on contradictions, which obdurate ignorance, and dogmatism?
Gentility of character, friendliness and purity of mind, are found in those who are capable of thinking profoundly on abstruse matters and scientific minutiae.
Man should hasten to protect himself from love before succumbing to it and cleanse his soul from it when he falls.
The self-admirer, generally, should not glorify himself nor be so conceited that he elevates himself above his counterparts. Neither should he belittle himself to such an extent that he becomes inferior to his own peers or to those who are inferior both to him and to his fellowmen in the eyes of others. If he follows this advice, he will be freed from self-admiration and feelings of inferiority, and people will call him one who truly knows himself.
When questioned on the subject of 'envy', Razi answers:

It results from an accumulation of stinginess and avarice in the soul, being one of the diseases that cause serious harm to the soul.

Quotes on Rhazes

"Rhazes was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages." – George Sarton
"Rhazes remained up to the 17th century the indisputable authority of medicine." – The Islamic Encyclopaedia
"His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject." – The Bulletin of the World Health Organization (May 1970)
"In today's world we tend to see scientific advance as the product of great movements, massive grant-funded projects, and larger-than-life socio-economic forces. It is easy to forget, therefore, that many contributions stemmed from the individual efforts of scholars like Rhazes. Indeed, pharmacy can trace much of its historical foundations to the singular achievements of this ninth-century Persian scholar." — Michael E. Flannery
Source: wikipedia.org